Oxford Masterclass – March 2023

The academic scholars in Year 10 recount their day in Oxford, edited by Evie M and Holly M.

Our first lecture was given by inspirational Julie Arliss, a renowned author and teacher. We explored the themes of justice, truth, and beauty, analysing the connections between these dimensions. First, we considered the meaning of justice and its origin, linking it to the history of law. She explained Plato’s definition and thoughts: he argued that our view of justice could not be acquired by experience as we have never lived in a perfectly fair world, suggesting it is a quality of the soul. This is directly linked to how we envision the notion of truth – a moral instinct in ourselves, similar to beauty, the innate ability to judge someone or something.

The second exciting activity of the day was a lecture informing us on Oxbridge interviews. It was very interesting to see how the interviews were structured, and how much they varied from your expectations! They told us to prepare for the unexpected, such as French and Spanish students being asked ‘Can statues move?’. The presenter talked us through more unique angles you could answer the question, not just a ‘no.’ She explored examples such as ice sculptures melting, or the statues’ atoms moving around.


The Y10 students enjoying their day in Oxford.

After a short break, we were fortunate enough to receive a talk from Dr Christopher O’Neill a fellow of Harris Manchester College, University of Oxford, about the psychology of outstanding achievement. Dr O’Neill focused on four aspects that actually produce a life of outstanding achievement contrary to popular belief regarding genetic profile and IQ, including the ‘stickability and marshmallow effect’ – a person’s ability to persevere with something. He delivered the talk with great enthusiasm and passion, and we definitely feel inspired to strive in all walks of life, knowing that outstanding achievement is entirely within our control. 

The debate began with introductory arguments from professional speakers who summarised the argument in support and opposition of the statement: “This house believes that it is never ok to comment on someone’s body”. The debate was then opened up to the students, who all had insightful and thought-provoking comments. Each student brought to the table their own perspectives, taking into consideration the experiences of not only themselves but their friends and family. The variety of complex answers and thoughtful responses were received positively by the community of students, who all came to the day with open minds and an eagerness to learn something new and expand their knowledge. These varied opinions helped to emphasise the importance of being able to adapt to new information and listen carefully to the perspectives of people in different positions from different backgrounds.

The very last talk of the day was Dr Mark Lewney. Dr Lewney is a physicist, but he teaches in a very distinctive way – using the electric guitar. It was like our own private concert as he discussed concepts such as string theory, the Big Bang, the speed of light and many more, through the power of music. Even though some of these are generally difficult to comprehend, the engaging and amusing way in which it was presented to us made it easier to understand. He rounded it off with a rendition of Queen’s Bohemian Rhapsody adapted to explain these concepts. The format, his sense of humour and educational aspect made it an unforgettable experience!

Overall, we thoroughly enjoyed the day as we felt it gave us a good insight into the different ways of interlinking subjects. In particular, the debate was incredibly engaging as it provided us with different perspectives from that of just our own school: a true example of academic collaboration. We would definitely recommend attending similar events as it was a unique opportunity for academic expansion.

Is there another planet suitable for us to live on?

Believe it or not, there is an ominous answer.

In this week’s WimLearn, Thandi (Y10) explores the options for humans beyond planet Earth.

For many years, people have wondered if the Earth is the only planet with such variety of life, if any life at all. Surely, we are not the only ones out there?
While we may not know if there is extra-terrestrial life, we know that there are many planets that are earth-like, found in the project Kepler, which was launched in NASA on March 7, 2009. The name of the project is from Renaissance astronomer Johannes Kepler, who gave us the Three laws of Planetary Motions.

By the time Kepler was closed on the 15th of November 2018, two thousand, six hundred and sixty-two planets had been found. Some being more earth-like than others. A few examples are Kepler-186f, Kepler-69c and Kepler-1649c, but one planet that stands out from the others is Kepler-452b.

Earth 2.0?

Kepler-452b, also known as KOI-7016.01, was discovered on the 23rd of July 2015. It is known as Earth 2.0 because its traits, from orbital period to estimated atmosphere, are similar to earth. More similar than most other planets spotted within the project. One of the main attributes being that it is the smallest planet orbiting in the habitable zone of a G2-type star, just like our sun. Its orbital period is around 384 days, which is only 19 days longer than Earth’s,[1] and its star- Kepler-452, is 6 billion years old, which is 1.5 billion years older than our sun.[2] Considering that the oldest star discovered is Methuselah, which could be as old as 14.5 billion years old (which clashes with the universe’s calculated age of around 13.8 billion years, mind you),[3] those two stars are very close in age.

Similarities and differences:

When stars get older, they increase in surface area, their temperature rises and the light waves’ amplitude increases, which makes the star brighter. All this has a big effect on its planets and Kepler-452b is no different.  It gains 10% more stellar radiation flux from Kepler-452 than the earth does from the sun. Looking at its atmosphere, Earth 2.0 may be too hot to be habitable depending on how much silicate weathering there is. If too small, then there would be too much carbon dioxide for us to breathe.[4]

The composition of the exoplanet is similar, however, but its levels of nitrogen and hydrogen are greater, making the air denser. And, despite the planet being in the habitable zone, meaning that water can exist in liquid form, we do not know if Kepler-452b could have retained its water storage after 6.0 billion years.[4]

In terms of size, Kepler-452b is certainly larger than earth, making it one of the ‘super-earths’ where the planet is larger than earth but smaller than the ice planets of our solar system- Uranus and Neptune. Its radius is about 1.5 times bigger than the earth,[1] and the diameter is, therefore, around 60% larger.[5] Because of its small radius, there is a big chance that the planet is a rock planet. We do not know its mass exactly, but it is at least 5 times bigger than the earth, making the planet even more likely to be a rock planet when comparing the mass to the diameter.

  EARTH KEPLER-452b
Radius 6,371 km Around 9,500 km
Mass 5.972 x 1024kg 52M Earth
Age of its star 4.5 billion 6 billion
Distance from its star 150.86 million km 156 million km

But can we go there?

Now that we have gone through most of the physical facts, you may be wondering if we could ever live upon that planet.

Firstly, we do not know if we would be able to breathe on the earth because it is very unlikely that the ratio of oxygen-hydrogen is the same.

Secondly, it is very far away. So far away in fact that we are unable to use telescopes or next generation telescopes to work out its true mass or determine its atmospheres, though some next-gen telescopes such as TESS and CHEOPS, will be able to do so with other, nearby planets.[1]

Thirdly, because of the point above, it would take ages for us to get there. The average rocket would take 28440 km/h to get into space alone.[6] And if we wanted to get there by a quicker, more specific mode of transport- for example, the New Horizons spacecraft which goes at 59,000 km/h, it would take approximately 30 million years to get there because the planet is about 1800 light years away from our solar system.[1] Unless we stopped ourselves from ageing, for example freezing our bodies, we obviously would not make it there alive.

So perhaps we are currently unable to live on another planet. But, despite the end of the Kepler telescope, the search for Earth 2.0 continues. And who knows? In the future, we may be able to travel for one planet to another like a trip to Disneyland.


REFERENCES:

[1] Kepler-452b. (1 September 2022). Retrieved 3 September 2022 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler-452b

[2]Comparison Between Earth and Kepler-452b and Their Host Stars. (6 April 2016). Retrieved 3 September 2022 from https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/resources/282/comparison-between-earth-and-kepler-452b-and-their-host-stars/

[3]Hubble Finds Birth Certificate of Oldest Known Star. (3 July 2013). Retrieved 3 September 2022 from https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/science/hd140283.html

[4]Climate and Habitability of Kepler 452b Stimulated with a Fully Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Model. (17 January 2017). Retrieved 3 September 2022 from https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/aa56c4#:~:text=The%20discovery%20of%20Kepler%20452b,and%20habitability%20require%20quantitative%20studies.

[5]NASA’s Kepler Mission Discovers Bigger, Older Cousin to Earth. (23 July 2015). Retrieved 3 September 2022 from https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-kepler-mission-discovers-bigger-older-cousin-to-earth

[6]Rocket speed. Retrieved 3 September 2022 from https://www.redshift-live.com/en/magazine/articles/Exploring_Space/8671-Rocket_speed-1.html#:~:text=This%20speed%20of%207.9%20kilometers,times%20the%20speed%20of%20sound.

Can and Should There Be a ‘Lights Out’ for the Dark Web?

In this week’s WimLearn, Lara K in Year 11 explores the ethical dilemma authorities face when regulating the dark web.

What is the Dark Web?

Often, the internet is thought of as one large, online platform. In actuality, the internet more closely resembles an iceberg with 3 layers: the surface web, the deep web, and finally, the dark web. The surface web is what you probably visit every day; accessible through a standard browser, this is where you find public pages like Wikipedia, YouTube and my Grandmother’s food blog. The next layer, the deep web, consists of web pages that are access-controlled (so not fully accessible to the public). For example, emails or bank records require a login, JSTOR has a paywall, even our school firefly website is on the deep web. The third layer, the dark web, exists on dark nets which requires special software to access. These dark websites take many forms: both small friend-to-friend peer-to-peer networks and popular, sprawling networks like Tor and I2P1. Many people, including academics and law enforcement agencies, have struggled to formulate an opinion on the dark web and- crucially- whether or not it should be allowed to continue.

Why Should We Shut Down the Dark Web?

Activity on the dark web is completely anonymous and very difficult to trace2. As a result of the anonymity, it’s becoming a cancerous hub for criminal activity that is near impossible for governments to regulate. In a 2015 study, researchers at King’s College London studied 2723 dark websites over 5 weeks- 57% of these sites hosted illegal content3­­. Recently, studies have placed this percentage even higher4. Prevalent crimes on the dark web include illicit (particularly child) pornography, publication of private/sensitive information, marketplaces which sell illegal materials: drugs, weapons, slaves, information (e.g. Netflix passwords or social security numbers), and services (e.g. hackers)5.[1]

This use of dark web markets means that terrorists, in particular, can undermine UN and governmental measures which aim to stop weaponry and other such resources from reaching them6. Furthermore, the use of encrypted communication (via the dark web) means that authorities are unable to intercept terrorist plans- potentially putting countless lives at risk. Evidence of this encryption was acquired in 2013 by the US National Security Agency which intercepted communications between the leaders of al-Qaeda6.

Why We Should Not Shut Down the Dark Web?

There are ethical concerns about whether removing the dark net would be justifiable. Contrarily to public perception, the dark web hosts numerous legal activities7– simply giving users access to private, surveillance-free communication without the anxiety of an accumulating digital footprint. For example, many dark web activities resemble the surface web (like Facebook8). As a result, some argue that attempts to terminate the dark web are authoritarian and impede freedom of speech.

Furthermore, dark websites can provide invaluable platforms for advocacy and whistleblowing- allowing people to overcome censorship or taboo. To illustrate, ProPublica is a Tor publication which gives readers access to journalistic content that their governments may have censored9. In fact, Human Rights Watch, in a statement to the UN Human Rights Council, declared:

“we urge all governments to promote the use of strong encryption technologies and to protect the right to seek, receive and impart information anonymously online.”10

Photo by Soumil Kumar from Pexels: https://www.pexels.com/photo/photo-of-person-typing-on-computer-keyboard-735911/

So Should We Shut Down the Dark Web?

Despite ethical concerns, many countries have concluded that the criminality of the dark web outweighs any benefits of its existence. For instance, the UN- supposedly representative of the international body- has expressed concerns over the dark web11. Furthermore, the Centre for International Governance Innovation surveyed people across 24 countries: 71% of the respondents believed in dark net termination12.

Can we shut down the Dark Web?

In short, no; it is probably not feasible to shut down the whole dark web. Like the surface web, it consists of thousands of private websites- to shut each of these down, and ensure new websites don’t emerge, is simply impossible with current technology13. As with the internet itself, the dark web is not a centralised operation with one big red button to shut it all down.[2]

Instead, countries/organisations have attempted to shut down specific dark websites one-by-one- somewhat unsuccessfully. Even if a dark website is terminated, there is a sprawling network of pages from which another site will spring up in its place. For example, when the FBI shut down The Silk Road (a notorious dark net drug market) in 2013, dozens of similarly harmful replacement sites emerged4.

Other solutions?

Whilst shutting down the dark web is not feasible, there are several other approaches which may prove more fruitful. For example, many law enforcement agencies have tried rooting illegal activity out of the dark web. This has proved a challenging endeavour. Typically, authorities collect a range of evidence about cyber criminals (like IP) to catch and eventually prosecute them14. However, the dark web encryption means that tracing criminals is a technically complex, often futile process. Additionally, illegal dark web marketplace transactions can’t be tracked as the use of cryptocurrency (typically Bitcoin or Monero) renders both distributors and customers anonymous6.

Another method is for law enforcement agencies to go undercover on the dark web. For example, in 2013 the FBI arrested Ross Ulbricht, the leader of the aforementioned Silk Road, after acting as an undercover agent on the site15. Similarly, the “honeypot trap” method has also proved successful, but deeply unethical1. In this method, law enforcement agents also go undercover on the dark web but partake in illicit activity with the aim of catching those who try to access the illicit content. Infamously, in 2014-2015 the FBI obtained a search warrant on “Playpen”- a dark website hosting child pornography. Instead of closing down the site, the FBI operated “Playpen” and received a further warrant to send malware to the devices of those who accessed the content. The malware searched their computers for child pornography and, using IP addresses, the FBI was able to locate criminals16. As a result, by May 2017, 548 related arrests were made17. However, by not terminating “Playpen”, the FBI was actively enabling the further spread of child pornography for nearly two weeks- allowing thousands of people access. Additionally, the malware used invaded the privacy of thousands16. It could be argued that the sweeping warrant issued to the FBI to use the malware breached the fourth amendment:

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.18

Indeed, the malware “violated” thousands with surveillance- many of whom did not possess child pornography. In spite of this, the remarkable outcome of “Playpen” (shown below in the bar chart17) proves the effectiveness of undercover operations.[3]

[17]

Alternatively, countries have dealt with the dark web offline- drawing on the principle that the dark web is merely a platform to enable and display criminal activity; the actual crime happens in the real world with real people. Hence, organisations- like the UN- are working to improve regulatory measures which prevent crime before it reaches the dark web. To illustrate, the International Tracing Instrument (2005)19 legally requires small arms to be marked with identifying information (like serial number, country of manufacture and more) and record-keeping be kept on all weapons. With refinement and stricter adherence to the policy, this could enable law enforcement agencies to track down where dark web marketplace weapons are produced, supplied, and sold. Therefore, efforts to target relevant offline crime would be more targeted. The principle could be similarly applied to other dark web crimes.

Furthermore, increased social support could avert people from the dark web. This may include education about the risks and consequences of cybercrime. In the UK, cyber security/crime and ethics feature in computer science curricula20 and PSHE. Also, protecting and supporting those vulnerable to various aspects of dark web crime could curb illegal activity. For instance, the UK Prevent Strategy (2011) aims to prevent the radicalisation of people susceptible to terrorist recruitment using various methods21. From 2015-16, 7,631 people were referred to Prevent; 7,631 potential dark web terrorists had there been no intervention. Whilst Prevent was not ideal- facing allegations of institutionalised Islamophobia22– similar policies tackling each of the numerous dark web crimes could prove fruitful. For example, perhaps intervention could be provided to those vulnerable to trafficking, illicit sexual activity, drug abuse, illegal arms possession, and more.

Finally, many organisations have researched specific issues surrounding the dark web- aiming to increase the efficiency of tackling crime. For instance, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) collects data about dark web drug sales, publishing this in their annual world drug[4]report23 Developing knowledge and increasing transparency around the dark web can help guide international efforts against cybercrime and enlighten the public about the all-too-often misunderstood layer of the internet.

Perhaps, although there may never be a ‘lights out’ for the dark web, there may be a ‘lights on’ for our understanding and our capability to fight back.


References:

[1] 1D. Clayton. Addressing the Challenges of Enforcing the law on the Dark Web. Global Justice Blog. 11-11-2007. https://law.utah.edu/addressing-the-challenges-of-enforcing-the-law-on-the-dark-web/ (Accessed 2022-18-08)

2What is the Dark Web? Microsoft 365. 15-07-22. https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365-life-hacks/privacy-and-safety/what-is-the-dark-web (Accessed 2022-18-08)

3D. Moore, T. Rid. Cryptopolitik and the Darknet. Survival, vol. 58, no. 1, 2016: pp. 7-384

4M. McGuire. Into Web of Profit Study Behind Dark Net Black Mirror. HP Threat Research Blog. 06-06-2019 https://threatresearch.ext.hp.com/study-explores-dark-net-enterprise-risk/ (Accessed 2022-03-09)

5E. Fisher. Dark Web Crimes. Find Law. 21-12-2021. https://www.findlaw.com/criminal/criminal-charges/dark-web-crimes.html (Accessed 2022-30-08)

6 G. Weimann. Going Darker? Center. 31-05-2018. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/going-darker-the-challenge-dark-net-terrorism (Accessed 2022-20-08)

[2]

7 M. Mirea, V. Wang, J. Jung. The not so dark side of the darknet: a qualitative study. Security Journal, vol. 32, 2019: pp. 102-118.

8 Wikipedia. 30-06-2022. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook_onion_address (Accessed 2022-22-08)

9 C. Giwa. Why ProPublica Joined the Dark Web. Propublica. 19-01-2016. https://www.propublica.org/podcast/why-propublica-joined-the-dark-web (Accessed 2022-20-08)

10 Promote Strong Encryption and Anonymity in the Digital Age. Human Rights Watch. 17-06-2015. https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/06/17/promote-strong-encryption-and-anonymity-digital-age-0 (Accessed 2022-22-08)

11 Secretary-General Calls Cyberterrorism Using Social Media, Dark Web, ‘New Frontier’ in Security Council Ministerial Debate. UN Press. 25-09-2015. https://press.un.org/en/2019/sgsm19768.doc.htm (Accessed 2022-22-08)

12 S. Zohar. The “Dark Net” should be shut down: CIGI-Ipsos global survey: But what about its benefits? Centre for International Governance Innovation. 24-03-2016. https://www.cigionline.org/articles/dark-net-should-be-shut-down-cigi-ipsos-global-survey-what-about-its-benefits/ (Accessed 2022-22-08)

13 T. Leetim. The Dark Web: what it is, how it works, and why it’s not going away. Vox. 31-12-2014. https://www.vox.com/2014/12/31/7470965/dark-web-explained (Accessed 2022-02-09)

[3] 14 How Do Cybercriminals Get Caught? Norton. 18-01-2018. https://us.norton.com/internetsecurity-emerging-threats-how-do-cybercriminals-get-caught.html (Accessed 2022-25-08)

15 T. Hume. How FBI caught Ross Ulbricht, alleged creator of criminal marketplace Silk Road. CNN. 05-10-2013. https://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/04/world/americas/silk-road-ross-ulbricht/index.html (Accessed 2022-25-08)

16 M. Rumold. Playpen: The Story of the FBI’s Unprecedented and Illegal Hacking Operation. Electronic Frontier Foundation. 15-09-2016. https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2016/09/playpen-story-fbis-unprecedented-and-illegal-hacking-operation (Accessed 2022-25-08)

17 ‘Playpen’ Creator Sentenced to 30 Years. FBI. 05-05-2017. https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/playpen-creator-sentenced-to-30-years (Accessed 2022-25-08)

18 J. Madison. US Constitution. Pennsylvania, 1787, amendment 4.

[4] 19 International Instrument to Enable States to Identify and Trace, in a Timely and Reliable Manner, Illicit Small Arms and Light Weapons, New York: United Nations, 2005

20 GCSE Computer Science (9-1)- J277. OCR https://www.ocr.org.uk/qualifications/gcse/computer-science-j277-from-2020/ (Accessed 2022-25-08)

21 HM Government. Prevent Strategy 2011. GOV.UK. 07-06-2022. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prevent-strategy-2011 (Accessed 2022-25-08)

22 M. Versi. The latest Prevent figures show why the strategy needs an independent review. The Guardian. 10-11-2022 https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/nov/10/prevent-strategy-statistics-independent-review-home-office-muslims (Accessed 30-08-2022)

23 World Drug Report 2022. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2022. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/data-and-analysis/world-drug-report-2022.html (Accessed 2022-30-08)

Antioxidants – All style and no substance?

In this week’s WimLearn, Alba G in Year 12 looks at the science behind antioxidants and whether they are all that marketers claim them to be.

A Marketing Dream

If you have ever found yourself walking down a food aisle, or flicking through a health magazine at the hairdressers, or stumbling across health and fitness media, you will have almost certainly come across boxes of, adverts for, or articles selling the virtue of antioxidants. They’re everywhere – the trendy health miracle.

You may be aware of antioxidant rich foods such as goji berries, citrus fruits, and even dark chocolate, branded clearly as ‘healthy’.

Photo by Jane Doan

The media has become obsessed with grouping foods into ‘healthy’ or ‘unhealthy’, ‘good’ or bad’, ‘beneficial’ or ‘harmful’ categories. But how far is this scientifically accurate – are antioxidants really anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, do they protect against cancer, or are they a marketing con backed insufficiently with scientific research?

The benefits of antioxidants seem endless – I have already picked only a few ground-breaking claims. An article from ‘live science’ explains the science behind antioxidants with claims laced in terminology using words such as “research”, “free radicals” and “oxygen-reactive species,” to give their article more weight due to a scientific foundation, yet says ‘this article … is not meant to offer medical advice.’ So what is the science behind this media frenzy?  

What are antioxidants?

To understand antioxidants, we first need to know about free radicals. Free radicals are highly unstable reactive atoms in your body as they have an unpaired electron. They are made by your body (e.g. when converting food to energy,) and you can also be exposed to them (e.g. cigarette smoke.) When reacting with each other they create a chain reaction, as they produce more free radicals. When they react they can cause cell deterioration, a process called ‘oxidative stress’, which can lead to cancer.

Antioxidants react with free radicals preventing further production of free radicals. Therefore, many concluded that antioxidants get rid of harmful chemicals in the body, so eating more antioxidants will increase this positive effect and further improve health.

What do scientists think?

Analysis by NCCIH (National Centre for Complementary and Integrative Health) says ‘most clinical studies of antioxidant supplements have not found them to provide substantial health benefits’, and that ‘the relationship between free radicals and health may be more complex than has previously been thought.’ Free radicals are not entirely bad – they help to destroy bacterial infections, so the media has potentially oversimplified the roles of free radicals and antioxidants.

Ben Goldacre claimed in his book ‘Bad Science’ that we should be ‘wary of blindly following hunches based on laboratory level and theoretical data’ after discussing a Cochrane review that found an ‘increase in risk of lung cancer in participants taking B-carotene and retinol together.’ Feedback mechanisms within the body complicate theory, which is why research trials are so important.

Why is there a gap between public understanding and science?

This research is not new – antioxidant benefits are highly contested, yet the ‘live science’ article I referred to was published recently, and antioxidants are still advertised very positively by many companies playing on public fear and paranoia of diseases such as cancer. 

Corporations and advertising companies look for eye catching headlines and desire, for a healthy life, to instil confidence in the public that their product will work. They want certainty – they feel the need to box foods into ‘good’ or ‘bad’ categories to prove their product is effective. Science isn’t always so black and white – new research is conducted all the time stretching our understanding, yet I believe public opinion is based on emotion and trust as well as facts, hence it struggles to adapt as new knowledge emerges.

So next time you’re walking down a food aisle and see expensive products advertising antioxidants promising to ‘prevent cancer’, think twice before buying – it may be more complex than it seems.


References:

Antioxidants: In Depth | NCCIH (nih.gov)

‘Bad Science’ by Ben Goldacre

Drugs for preventing lung cancer in healthy people – PubMed (nih.gov) – Cochrane review

Nine benefits of antioxidants: From disease prevention to healthy aging | Live Science – the benefits of antioxidants

Is it enough to simply have your voice heard, or does someone have to act on it for you to feel satisfied?

In this week’s WimLearn Lucy D. in Y12 explores whether it is enough to just be listened to, to have someone hear your opinions and concerns?  Or does someone have to act on them in order for us to feel satisfied? 

In April 2019, David Kestenbaum reported on a study that he’d conducted called ‘The Tattle-Phone’.  The premise of the study was that children in a pre-school class at Woodland Hills Private School, California, were given a fake phone that they could use to tell their problems to.  For example, if they’d been pinched by one of their friends, the child could go to ‘The Tattle-Phone’ and be able to tell the phone what had happened. 

After a month of the study, Kestenbaum then interviewed the children and asked them what they thought of ‘The Tattle-Phone’.  “One girl told me talking to “The Tattle-Phone” felt like eating ice cream.”[1]  The general consensus from the study was that the children felt better after voicing their frustrations, because they felt that they were being listened to.  However, there is another side to this.  Towards the end of the month, Kestenbaum noticed that the number of times the phone was used decreased.  Part of this was the novelty of it wearing off, but there was also the fact that talking to ‘The Tattle-Phone’ didn’t prompt any action.  The children had noticed that nothing was being done to allay their concerns, and so had stopped using the phone as often, because they’d lost trust in it.

The relevance of this study is that it highlights a very interesting question surrounding the idea of having a voice, of being able to complain to somebody about your problems, no matter how big or small.  Is it enough to just be listened to, to have someone hear your opinions and concerns?  Or does someone have to act on them in order for us to feel satisfied? 

Within a democracy, everybody’s voice is heard and everybody gets a chance to make their views and concerns known, but not everyone will get their views acted on all of the time.  On the whole, people can be satisfied with the knowledge that their voice has been listened to, even if the person who they supported has not gained power or if the views of another group of people are the ones that have been acted on.  Within companies this is also often true, as case studies collated by the CIPD (Chartered Institute of Personnel Development) in 2021 showed: when employers wanted to increase inclusivity and job satisfaction, their policies focussed on improving the systems which employees used to suggest ideas and to voice their worries, showing how these employers felt that making employees’ voices a priority was key to improving the satisfaction of people who worked for them.[2]

However, like the children becoming disillusioned with the telephone, sometimes people or populations cannot accept that just having a voice is enough.  They need to see some action.  Examples of this range from coups in Ancient Rome, to the Chinese Civil War in the 1940s, when people have been expecting action from those in power and have not got it, so they have changed their leader for one who will take action.  In these cases, and in the cases of many other uprisings throughout history, it becomes clear that often it is not enough to simply tell someone your opinions and concerns, these views have to be acted on in order for you to be satisfied with the outcome.

It’s paradoxical, because sometimes the knowledge that your voice has been heard is enough, with no action required, and sometimes what you want is for someone not just to hear your concerns but to take action because of them.  But this produces the problem that not everybody’s voices can be acted on all the time, particularly if their views contradict each other.  The choice of whose voice to act on in any given scenario is difficult at all levels, from Student Councils, to employers, to Presidents and Prime Ministers.  Perhaps simply having our voice heard and listened to has to be enough, and this is what Barack Obama offered in November 2008 after being elected to serve his first term as President of the USA: “I will listen to you, especially when we disagree.”

From Pexels.com

The Convivencia

In WimLearn this week, Year 11 student Laura K researched the Convivencia, a lesser-known part of the Spanish history.

During a visit to Toledo in Spain I noticed part of the Toledo Cathedral was a mosque and thought that this was unusual. Only later did I realise that this was a remanent of the Muslim presence in the city during what I now have learnt is a period known as the “Convivencia”. It was interesting to learn that there was a significant Arabic presence in Toledo and that their history and cultural contributions to Spanish culture are not widely discussed or recognised. This is also the case for Jewish culture. This topic was a fascinating topic to research, and I was lucky enough to attend a lecture by Dr Vidal on the Convivencia.

The Convivencia refers to a period of Spanish history in which all three Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam) cohabited together. Spreading mostly over a region referred to as “Al-Andalus”, (including modern day cities such as Seville, Cordoba, and Toledo in Spain) this 400-year period marked a distinct change in interfaith relationships and culture. Although the beginnings and ends of this history are filled with persecution and forced conversion, there existed a time in between, of centuries of peaceful coexistence and cooperation, with mutual cultural exchanges that benefited Muslims, Jews, and Christians.

Beginnings and interactions: The Convivencia began with Arab armies entering the Iberian Peninsula in 711 AD. The peninsula was previously held by Catholic Visigoths and was a region which, at the time, was very politically unstable. The region also contained many scattered Jewish communities who had arrived in the region roughly in the fourth century. Following the Muslim conquest of the peninsula, the majority of the Visigoths fled the region to Europe. However, the Christians who did not leave slowly adopted Muslim culture, including elements of the Arabic language. These Christians were referred to as Mozarabs and essentially adopted the customs and styles of Muslims, without converting. Over time relationships began to form between all three religious groups creating a unique and complex culture and society where all three functioned togther.

The migration of Christians and Jews into the thriving heart of Al-Andalus lead to exchanges in faith, language, and philosophy. As the communites lived in such proximity, interaction became unavoidable, leading to both inter-religious violence as well as peaceful cohabitation. There are records of Muslims allowing Christians to pray in their mosques, along with records of forced conversion and violence between the groups. These interfaith relationships did not exclude marriage or friendships, with several records of marriages and relationships between all faiths, even though it was forbidden.  There are even records of shared business interactions where Jews and Muslims had partnerships in a store and divided the profits equally in accordance with their respective sabbath days (the profits of sales on Friday went only to the Jew and those of Saturday only to the Muslim).  

Religious tolerance was probably at its highest in 912 AD when Abd Al-Rah Man III ruled over the Cordoba region. During his reign he was referred to as the “prince of all believers” and he encouraged reconcilition between all religious groups and brought about a period of relatively peaceful cohabitation.

Religious tolerance: Naturally, certain cities were more tolerant. Although these communities cohabited, they did not necessarily always exist in harmony. Many historians argue that the narrative of the Convivencia has shifted towards a utopian fallacy. Many records of this period give contradicting images of this period. Where there was harmony there was also mistrust between the other religions and converts.  For example, a riot broke out against the Jews of Cordoba in March of 1135. ″because of a dead Muslim found among them.” Jewish houses were attacked and robbed, and a number of Jews were killed. Religious tolerance began to drastically decline towards the end of this period when Christian strongholds in the north began to slowly advance south. Christian – Muslim relationships specifically, were already strained due to religious differences, and laws were developed to segregate the communites further. In Valladolid, Muslims were required to wear long beards “as their law commands” to identify themselves as Muslim and no Christian woman was allowed to nurse a Jewish or Muslim child, and vice versa.

Downfall of the Convivencia: As the Christian kingdoms progressively expanded south taking over Muslim territory (in what is known as the “Reconquista”) the Muslim armies faced losses and retreated. When the Christians ultimately took power over the region, the Muslim and Jewish populations were faced with either forced conversion, exile, or death. While the Reconquista was ongoing, Muslims and Jews who came under Christian control were allowed to practise their religion to some degree, but this all ended in the late 15th century with the fall of Granada in 1492. In 1492, with the Alhambra decree, those Jews who had not converted to Catholicism were expelled and forced to abandon their homes, communites and businesses. With the expulsion of the Jews the Convivencia was over.


Prayer room in the Alhambra in Granada. Date: 1851 – c 1890. – Rijksmuseum

Impact and legacy: The Convivencia led to a great cumulation of knowledge from these respective communities, both linguistically and philosophically. The impact that it had on Spanish culture, language and architecture is often not very recognised. The Mozarab Christian population began to either speak Arabic or interchange it with Spanish during the Convivencia. The impact this had linguistically on Spanish can still be observed today with almost any words beginning with al- coming from Arabic roots e.g., Algodón (cotton) coming from the Arabic word Al-qutn. As a Spanish student it was very interesting to learn the linguistic roots in the language that can be traced back to this specific period. I also noticed that several common Spanish words come from Arabic, for example  barrio (neighbourhood)  comes from the Arabic word barrī  , and the Spanish ojalá (I hope/maybe) comes from the Arabic inshallah. There are many other examples of this. Interestingly Spanish also influenced Hebrew which was the language spoken by the Jewish population in Spain at that time; the language Ladino was a Judeo-Spanish language which was entirely developed by Sephardic Jews who lived in the peninsula during this period and is still spoken today by diaspora communities. In addition to the blending of languages the merging of cultures was reflected in other ways.  For example, Spanish Christians began to mirror Islamic geometric patterns, ornamental metals, and brick work. Some of these features are still present in the current Spanish architecture. The Muslim population also brought with them crops such as silk, cotton and satin leading to a very successful textiles industry within the region. Along with this the Arabs introduced the Arabic number system which compared to its roman counterpart included the number zero.

Conclusion: Sadly, due to the largely violent end of this period and the general resistance to Islam and Judaism from the newly Catholic country the existence and impact of their cultural, architectural and linguistic contributions from these groups were slowly and deliberately forgotten. The expulsion of the Jewish people meant that a Jewish presence in the region did not return for hundreds of years and the communities who converted to Christianity were constantly under the gaze of the Spanish inquisition. While elements of Muslim and Jewish culture remained, it largely evolved and assimilated into Spanish culture leaving only remnants behind. Overall, this topic has given me a greater understanding of Spanish culture and its history as well as giving me a deeper understanding of the Spanish language.

I gathered most of my information from articles such as Convivencia: Christians, Jews, and Muslims in Medieval Spain by By Lindsey Marie Vaughanm and Convivencia in Islamic Spain by Sarah-Mae Thomas as well as the talk I attended by Dr Vidal from Queen Mary University of London in April 2022.

The Kirtle: The Original Dress

[Early 17th century kirtle, ‘the lute player’, Orazio Gentileschi]

Pheoebe C in Year 12 explores the evolution of the kirtle, from its origins to its more modern form, the dress.

A kirtle is a one-piece garment that was popular in Western Europe from the early Middle Ages up into the 17th century. Mentions of the kirtle date back to as early as the 10th century[1], and painted depictions survive from throughout the 17th century[2]. Initially worn by both men and women (although men’s kirtles are often referred to as ‘cotehardies’ in modern scholarship, they are fundamentally the same[3]), men’s fashion gradually shifted away, towards the shirts and trousers we see in menswear today. However, the basic concept of the kirtle still survives in modern-day dresses, making it perhaps the most influential garment in the entire history of Western fashion.

[Kirtle from 15th century manuscript]

The kirtle was the first western ‘dress’, so to speak. Although clothing had also previously consisted of one long garment draped over the whole body, the kirtle was made to fit around the human body, rather than be wrapped and manipulated with folds and belts until it fit. Additionally, it needed no extra closures such as pins or brooches, as previous garments had done. Examples of the kirtle’s predecessor include Roman togas (and other robes), as well the Anglo-Saxon peplos[4]. These garments were loose-fitting and tended to be made of just a large rectangle (or two) of fabric, pinned or tied around the body, and often sleeveless. The kirtle was also one of the first Western garments which required no extra undergarments (although they were often worn in combination with other garments for warmth or practicality anyway). They had sleeves and were long enough to also cover the legs, circumventing the need for several additional items of clothing, and instead combining them all into one.

[Peplos]

Kirtles started off as both under and outerwear, and it wasn’t uncommon to wear both an under-kirtle and an over-kirtle. The under-kirtle would have been made from a cheaper fabric that could survive frequent washing, whereas the outer-kirtle would be finer or decorated in some way. Kirtles were usually woollen, however, linen was sometimes used depending on environment and availability[5]. As time went on, the upper classes progressed to only wearing kirtles as undergarments, whereas the lower classes used them as main outer-garments for much longer[6].

Of course, since the popularity of the kirtle lasted over half a millennium, some evolution and change in style was inevitable. Early kirtles were loose-fitting and didn’t have waist-seams. However, by the 15th century they were skin-tight and then evolved to consist of separate skirts that were pleated or gathered before being attached to the bodice[7]. Kirtles were closed using lacing along the front, sides or back of the garment, although earlier examples of kirtles have no lacing at all. Since early kirtles were loose-fitting and had relatively wide necklines, lacing was unnecessary as they could just be put on over the head. Later, tighter kirtles also acted as a kind of prototype for the corset; they provided the kind of support we now receive from a modern bra.

[Kirtle with front lacing]

For example, here is a reconstruction of a 14th-century kirtle that I made a few years ago, versus the 17th-century one I made this summer.

[self-made 14th century kirtle & self-made 17th century kirtle]

Notice the stark difference in styles. Although, visually, they appear more different than similar, the fundamental and defining feature of the kirtle remains: a one-piece skirted garment.

Eventually, the kirtle fell out of fashion in favour of separate skirts and bodices among all classes. By the 18th century, there are barely any depictions of kirtles in art, even among lower-class and rural communities. While this development was inevitable since aristocratic fashion had long abandoned the kirtle in favour separate skirts, and working-class fashion has always followed upper class fashion- just at a delay of several decades- practicality was likely a major factor in this evolution. Combining a skirt with a separate jacket or bodice (still over the top of a shift) allowed the wearer to have more freedom in what they wore and saved unnecessary washing. It reduced the total number of garments someone needed to have a varied and adaptable wardrobe. It was also cheaper and quicker to make smaller individual pieces as required, rather than entire dresses. Additionally, as structural undergarments became more commonplace (providing bra-like support and shaping the torso, either in the form of early stays, as a pair of jumps, or as boning sewn directly into the bodice), the need for tight-fitting kirtles as supportive garments declined.

[example of separate skirt/jacket outfits worn by women of different classes. Woman reading a letter, Gabriel Metsu, c.1665-67]

The dress did come back into mainstream fashion eventually (after over a century- and even later in upper-class fashion). Although it looks unrecognisable from its medieval ancestor, the concept of the dress as a one-piece flowing garment originated with the kirtle in European fashion. Modern dresses also share this heritage, although construction techniques and style conventions have progressed significantly. In fact, the closest modern-day equivalents to the kirtle are various forms of European folk dress. The legacy of the kirtle lives on through garments such as the German Dirndl, a type of folk dress based off rural Alpine clothing in the 16th-18th centuries[8]. The modern Dirndl bares striking resemblance to the 17th century kirtle, and it is fair to presume that this is because one was based off the other, seeing as the kirtle was a very common working-class garment throughout Western Europe (including the Alpine region) at the time. Although it seems modern society has largely forgotten about the kirtle, its lasting impact is undeniably still evident in fashion today.

[modern dirndl example]

[1] Anglo-Saxon Female Clothing: Old English Cyrtel and Tunece, Donata Bulotta (https://www.jstor.org/stable/23966300#metadata_info_tab_contents )

[2] ’A Peasant Family at Meal-time’, c1665, Jan Steen

[3]  https://rosaliegilbert.com/kirtles.html

[4] Dress In Anglo-Saxon England, Gale R. Owen-Crocker (https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=45RJYhTGZiUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false )

[5] https://ateliernostalgia.wordpress.com/2017/03/24/medieval-kirtle/

[6] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirtle

[7] https://medievalbritain.com/type/medieval-life/clothing/medieval-dress/

[8] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirndl

Does time really fly when you’re having fun?

Taking a cue from Henri Bergson’s theory of time, Hafsa in Year 10 examines the science behind our sense that time speeds up when we are enjoying ourselves

Time is the most used noun in the English language and yet humans are still struggling to define it, with its complicated breadth and many interdimensional theories. We have all lived through the physical fractions of time like the incessant ticking of the second hand or the gradual change in season, however, do we experience it in this form? This is a question that requires the tools of both philosophy and science in order to reach a conclusion.

In scientific terms, time can be defined as ‘The progression of events from the past to the present into the future’. In other words, it can be seen as made up of the seconds, minutes, and hours that we observe in our day-to-day life. Think of time as a one directional arrow, it cannot be travelled across or reversed but only and forever moves forward.

One philosophical theory would challenge such a definition of time. In the earliest part of the 20th century, the renowned philosopher Henri Bergson published his doctoral thesis, ‘Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data of Consciousness’, in which he explored his theory that humans experience time differently from this outwardly measurable sense. He suggested that as humans we divide time into separate spatial constructs such as seconds and minutes but do not really experience it in this form. If Bergson’s theory is right, our sense of time is really much more fluid than the scientific definition above suggests.

Image from www.pexels.com

If we work from the inside out, we can explore the different areas of our lives which influence our perception of time. The first area is the biological make-up of our bodies. We all have circadian rhythms which are physical, mental, and behavioural changes that follow a twenty-four-hour cycle. This rhythm is present in most living things and is most commonly responsible for determining when we sleep and when we are awake.

These internal body clocks vary from person to person, some running slightly longer than twenty-four hours and some slightly less. Consequently, everyone’s internal sense of time differs, from when people fall asleep or wake up to how people feel at different points during the day.

But knowing that humans have slight differences in their circadian rhythms doesn’t fully explain how our sense of time differs from the scientific definition. After all, these circadian rhythms still follow a twenty-four-hour cycle just like a clock. If we look at the wider picture, what is going on around us greatly affects our sense of time. In other words, our circadian rhythms are subject to external stimuli.

Imagine you are doing something you love, completely engrossed in the activity, whether it be an art, a science, or just a leisurely pastime. You look at the clock after what feels like two minutes and realise that twenty have actually passed. The activity acts as the external stimulus and greatly affects your perception of time.

When engrossed in an activity you enjoy, your mind is fully focussed on it, meaning there is no time for it to wander and look at the clock. Research suggests that the pleasurable event boosts dopamine release which causes your circadian rhythm to run faster. Let’s take an interval of five minutes as a basis for this. In this interval, due to your internal body clock running faster you feel as though only two minutes have gone by; time feels like it has been contracted.

By contrast, when you are bored, less dopamine is released, slowing your circadian rhythm, meaning your subjective sense of time runs slower. If we use the same example, in an interval of five minutes, you feel as though ten minutes have gone by and time feels elongated. This biological process has the power to shape and fluidify our perception of time.

So, the next time someone says ‘Wow, time really does fly by when you’re having fun,’ remember that there is much more science and philosophy behind the phrase than they might realise!

Sources

https://www.livescience.com/64901-time-fly-having-fun.html

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6042233/

Pre-Raphaelite Art: the depiction of Arthurian Legend

Verity in Year 12 looks at how the pre-Raphaelites interpreted the tales of King Arthur and his court for a nineteenth century audience, emphasising their splendour as well as the challenge they could express to Victorian materialism and industrialisation

The tales of King Arthur and his knights have been popular for hundreds of years and have been reworked and re-interpreted by different groups and cultures. Thought to have originated in Celtic, Welsh, and Irish legends, the figure of Arthur appears as either a great warrior defending Britain from both human and supernatural enemies, or as a magical figure of folklore.

Though the tales were drawn from different sources – many of the most famous coming from French writers such as Chretien de Troyes – the story’s international popularity largely came from Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the King of Britain), Thomas Malory’s Morte d’Arthur and most importantly Lord Alfred Tennyson’s poems. These works inspired the second phase in Pre-Raphaelitism. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a group of men (and a few important women) in the 1850s who challenged the artistic conventions of genre painting to instead ‘go to nature’ and work with the idea of realism.

Their principal themes were initially religious, but they also used subjects from literature and poetry, particularly those dealing with love and death. King Arthur’s knights of the Round Table presented the idea of an all-male community collectively devoted to a reforming project, and the brotherhood’s collaborative working patterns also reflected that.

The Arthurian Tales do not focus on one particular person, genre or event but they encompass numerous people and places – from the Guinevere and Lancelot scandal to Sir Gawain and his encounter with the mystical Green Knight; the sorceress Morgan Le Fay and Nimue; Arthur’s wizard advisor, Merlin, to Arthur’s son, Mordred, who brought about the legendary king’s ultimate downfall. Some of the most well-known paintings of the movement were the paintings depicting the The Lady of Shalott by William Waterhouse.

I am Half Sick of Shadows, The Lady of Shalott looking at Lancelot and The Lady of Shalott – William Waterhouse

These paintings tell the story of a woman who is forbidden to leave her tower and who can only see the outside world through a mirror, otherwise she will suffer a curse. The first part of the poem was depicted in the 1915 painting I am Half-Sick of Shadows Said the Lady of Shalott. The lady, trapped in her tower, spends her days weaving the images she sees in the mirror and at the moment captured in the painting, there are two lovers.

When the moon was overhead,

Came two young lovers lately wed,

‘I am half sick of Shadows’,

Said the Lady of Shalott.

In the painting there is a poppy in the reflection of the mirror but not in the foreground which foreshadows the lady’s death since poppies symbolise eternal sleep. Also, the weaving shuttles are shaped like boats which predict the final part of the poem. The next part was shown in the 1894 painting The Lady of Shalott Looking at Lancelot. The Lady sees Sir Lancelot in her mirror and falls instantly in love. She turns to properly look at him and the mirror shatters fulfilling the curse.

Out flew the web and floated wide;

The mirror crack’ d from side to side;

‘The curse come upon me,’

Cried the Lady of Shalott.

The lady is painted looking directly at the viewer with a defiant stare. She is tangled in the threads of her tapestries holding a small wooden shuttle, preparing to flee in order to find Lancelot. Within the context of 19th century Britain, Waterhouse may have implied that she is a woman of agency, defying her confinement and going after what she desires most. One could also say that Tennyson’s poem captured many artists’ ideas, especially the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, about whether they should capture nature truthfully or give their own interpretation. The Lady’s actions could reflect an artist breaking away from imagination and seeing the world in real life.

The final instalment of the poem is captured in The Lady of Shalott painted first in 1888. The lady moves downstream in a boat inscribed with her name on the prow holding the chains that tether her. On the boat is a crucifix symbolizing sacrifice and three candles, two of which have been blown out suggesting that her death will come soon. The woman’s lips are parted showing how she is singing her final song before her death.

For ere she reach’d upon the tide,

The first house by the water-side,

Singing in her song she died,

The Lady of Shalott.

The Beguiling of Merlin – Edward Burne-Jones

Another favourite is The Beguiling of Merlin painted in 1872 by Edward Burne-Jones. It shows a snake-crowned Nimue enchanting Merlin with his own sorcery by binding him into a tree in the forest. Merlin’s helplessness and entrapment is conveyed by the serpentine lines of the drapery and tree branches that imprison the wizard and deprive him of his power. This fluidity of line also captures the ebb and flow of magic. Furthermore, his droopy hands and glass-eyed demeanour reinforce the sense of paralysis. Like a lot of his work, Burne-Jones explores power relationships in which a man falls victim to a hidden threatening female power.

Guenevere – William Morris

The character of Guinevere and the scandal with Lancelot is also repeatedly depicted. Guinevere is the legendary Queen and wife of King Arthur and in French romantic interpretations she has a love affair with her husband’s chief knight and friend, Lancelot. William Morris’s painting Guenevere or La Belle Iseult is a portrait of the model and wife of Morris, Jane Burden in medieval dress. She was discovered by Morris and Rossetti when they were working together on the Oxford murals and she later became a model for several different artworks like Rossetti’s Proserpine, Sir Launcelot in the Queen’s Chamber and more of Morris’s work.

In both Morris’ and Rossetti’s paintings Burden is cast not only as a queen but as an adulteress. The way life later imitated art has an uncanny force, particularly considering Burden later became the lover of Rossetti in the 1860s. The rich colours, the emphasis on pattern and details such as the missal reveal where Morris’s true talents lay. He was less at home with figure painting than with illumination, embroidery, and woodcarving, and he struggled for months on this picture. Most people will know him as a key figure in the Arts & Crafts Movement having probably seen his wallpapers and designs.

The Last Sleep of Arthur in Avalon – Edward Burne-Jones

Six and a half metres wide The Last Sleep of Arthur in Avalon marked the culmination of Burne-Jones’ fascination with Arthurian legend. The painting, which took 17 years and remained unfinished, depicts a moment of rest and inaction. Mortally wounded, King Arthur rests his head on the lap of his sister, the fairy queen Morgana, who took her brother to Avalon after his defeat in battle. At the centre of the Arthurian tales is the idea that he did not actually die, but sleeps in Avalon, waiting for the moment when the nation will most need his return.

From its earliest roots the story of King Arthur has been changing hands and remoulded to fit the cultures and society of the time. For the Pre-Raphaelites and the Victorian era, the legend resonated with them. In part they found splendour in it – sparkling armour and swords, flying banners and beautiful maidens in flowing robes. On the other hand, Arthur became a symbol of their crusade against the mundane and the crude materialistic era that was Victorian industrialisation. They reshaped Arthur to become a means to convey the morals and the monarchical society of the time.


Edward Burne-Jones – Alison Smith

The Art of the Pre-Raphaelites – Elizabeth Prettejohn

https://owlcation.com/humanities/The-Pre-Raphaelite-paintings-of-King-Arthur-and-the-Arthurian-Legends

https://owlcation.com/humanities/arthurianlegendthroughouttheages

https://owlcation.com/humanities/The-Evolution-of-King-Arthur

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Arthur

https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/p/pre-raphaelite

Preventing a dangerous game of hide-and-seek in medical trials

Helen S reveals how the pharmaceutical industry hides unfavourable results from medical trials. She warns of the risks to human health, and proposes how we can make medical research more robust and trustworthy

Have you ever questioned the little pills prescribed by your doctors? I had not, until I began working on this article – and the truth is, we know less than we should about them. It is scary to think that, though these medications are supposed to heal us when we are feeling poorly, in reality, that it is not always the case.

Clinical trials are experiments or observations done for clinical research that compare the effects of one treatment with another. They may involve patients, healthy people, or both. Some are funded by pharmaceutical companies, and some are funded by the government. I will mainly focus on the phenomenon of hiding negative data in industry-funded trials.

Research done in 2005 by Evelyne Decullier, Senior Research Fellow at Hospices Civils de Lyon, compared registered trials that have failed and those that have succeeded, and which ones appear in the medical journals and academic literature. They consistently found that only half of trials are ever published and that positive results are 2.5 times more likely to be published than negative results.

Now, you might say, ‘how can those trials possibly affect me or other ordinary people?’ Well, read on…

Why this matters for your health

Lorcainide is an anti-arrhythmic heart drug and was tested in clinical trials in the 1980s. The results showed that patients given Lorcainide were far more likely to die than patients who weren’t.  But those results were not published until 10 years later, and during that time, doctors had been prescribing the drug to patients. According to Dr Ben Goldacre, director of DataLab at Oxford University, it has been estimated that more than 100,000 people who had taken Lorcainide died in America as a result. And Lorcainide is not a single case. Similar things may be happening to other clinical trials relating to drugs such as anti-depressants or cancer treatment.

The lack of transparency can also affect decisions on government spending. From 2006 to 2013, the UK government was advised to buy a drug called Tamiflu which was supposed to reduce pneumonia and death caused by influenza. The UK government went on to spend £424 million stockpiling this drug. But when the systematic reviewers tried to gather up all the trials that have been done on Tamiflu, they realised that the government had only seen a small number of the trials. They battled for years to get the trials from the drug company, and when they had finally got all of them, they found that Tamiflu was not sufficiently effective to justify that large a cost. If companies continue to withhold trials, similar expensive trials are going to be repeated, putting the volunteers, patients and doctors in danger.

Pharmaceutical companies have failed us, so what about the law? In America, it is required that medical trials held in the US need to be registered and have their results submitted within one year of the trial finishing. However, when scientists looked back at the data in 2015, they found out that only 20% of trials were submitted and reported.

Industry-funded research is not the complete villain in this situation. During these types of research, discoveries are more likely to occur (Adam, 2005; Adam, Carrier, & Wilholt, 2006; Carrier, 2004). And thanks to funding from industry, scientists are less pressured to present something that is directly linked to real‐world use, compared to public or government-funded projects (Carrier, 2011). And as we all know, new technologies all start with discoveries.

Finding remedies

Here are some suggestions from scientists for improving the current situation: to increase the transparency, to increase reproducibility and the most doable one, effective criticism (Elliott,2018). Out of these, the criterion that is the easiest to modify is to have more effective criticism. It is important to acknowledge that criticism doesn’t need always to be negative. Though the agencies that are usually responsible for evaluation can be limited by a variety of reasons, such as  understaffing or political issues, “they can get more involved in designing the safety studies performed by industry in specific cases,” suggests Philosopher of Science, Kevin Elliott. (A safety study is a study carried out after a medicine has been authorised, to obtain further information on a medicine’s safety, or to measure the effectiveness of risk-management measures.)

Luckily we have the technologies in our hands. Alpha Fold is leading the scene: it has done some amazing and accurate predictions on predicting the 3D shape of proteins, meaning scientists can facilitate the design of stable protein. It can also help to make sense of X-ray data to determine crystals structure; before Alpha Fold was invented, determining the structure of proteins to do structure-based drug design could take 3-4 years. Now they are presented in front of you in less than an hour.

Everyone is different, some people might have allergies, and some drugs might not even work for some people. To avoid these situations, technologies such as AI could make your prescription personalised to you. By analysing your DNA information sent to your pharmacy, AI would analyse the dosage and the drug suitable for you. The 3D printed “polypill” is a single pill that has all the personalised medication you need in one day in one pill, which is remarkable. 

Hopefully, now it is a little easier to understand the importance of transparency in clinical testing. Trial results were never just numbers – they are directly linked to the lives of millions. Pharmaceutical companies were not simply hiding data – they were hiding the deaths of the volunteers and patients, and the money of families wasted on more expensive but less effective treatments. There must be, without doubt, serious consequences if companies don’t follow regulations.  I believe there will be hope if the scientists use technology effectively and if a better research environment is created for future generations.